Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI
Volume 29, Issue 6 , Pages 433-453 , December 2008

Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Locoregional Staging of Rectal Adenocarcinoma

  • Colm J. McMahon, MB, FFR(RCSI)
  • ,
  • Martin P. Smith, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to: Martin P. Smith, MD, Department of Radiology, Shapiro 4, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 330 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215

References 

  1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2008. CA Cancer J Clin. 2008;58:71–96
  2. Sobin LH, Wittekind C. International Union Against Cancer (UICC) TNM Classification of Malignant Tumors. New York, NY: Wiley; 2002;
  3. Greene FL, Fleming ID. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. PD (ed 6). New York, NY: Springer; 2002;
  4. Jessup JM, Stewart AK, Menck HR. The National Cancer Data Base report on patterns of care for adenocarcinoma of the rectum, 1985-95. Cancer. 1998;83:2408–2418
  5. Kuo LJ, Liu MC, Jian JJ, et al. Is final TNM staging a predictor for survival in locally advanced rectal cancer after preoperative chemoradiation therapy?. Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14:2766–2772
  6. Arnoletti JP, Bland KI. Neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin North Am. 2006;15:147–157
  7. Glynne-Jones R, Mathur P, Elton C, et al. The multidisciplinary management of gastrointestinal cancer (Multimodal treatment of rectal cancer). Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2007;21:1049–1070
  8. Rajput A, Bullard Dunn K. Surgical management of rectal cancer. Semin Oncol. 2007;34:241–249
  9. Ramsey S, Tepper JE. Rectal cancer radiotherapy. Cancer J. 2007;13:204–209
  10. Tytherleigh MG, Warren BF, Mortensen NJ. Management of early rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2008;95:409–423
  11. Devereux DF, Deckers PJ. Contributions of pathologic margins and Dukes' stage to local recurrence in colorectal carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1985;149:323–326
  12. Adam IJ, Mohamdee MO, Martin IG, et al. Role of circumferential margin involvement in the local recurrence of rectal cancer. Lancet. 1994;344:707–711
  13. Birbeck KF, Macklin CP, Tiffin NJ, et al. Rates of circumferential resection margin involvement vary between surgeons and predict outcomes in rectal cancer surgery. Ann Surg. 2002;235:449–457
  14. Quirke P, Durdey P, Dixon MF, et al. Local recurrence of rectal adenocarcinoma due to inadequate surgical resection (Histopathological study of lateral tumour spread and surgical excision). Lancet. 1986;2:996–999
  15. Taylor RH, Hay JH, Larsson SN. Transanal local excision of selected low rectal cancers. Am J Surg. 1998;175:360–363
  16. Chakravarti A, Compton CC, Shellito PC, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with rectal cancer managed by local excision with and without adjuvant irradiation. Ann Surg. 1999;230:49–54
  17. Sengupta S, Tjandra JJ. Local excision of rectal cancer: what is the evidence?. Dis Colon Rectum. 2001;44:1345–1361
  18. Tjandra JJ, Kilkenny JW, Buie WD, et al. Practice parameters for the management of rectal cancer (revised). Dis Colon Rectum. 2005;48:411–423
  19. Heald RJ, Ryall RD. Recurrence and survival after total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Lancet. 1986;1:1479–1482
  20. Reynolds JV, Joyce WP, Dolan J, et al. Pathological evidence in support of total mesorectal excision in the management of rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 1996;83:1112–1115
  21. Scott N, Jackson P, al-Jaberi T, et al. Total mesorectal excision and local recurrence: a study of tumour spread in the mesorectum distal to rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 1995;82:1031–1033
  22. Martling AL, Holm T, Rutqvist LE, et al. Effect of a surgical training programme on outcome of rectal cancer in the County of Stockholm (Stockholm Colorectal Cancer Study Group, Basingstoke Bowel Cancer Research Project). Lancet. 2000;356:93–96
  23. Nesbakken A, Nygaard K, Westerheim O, et al. Local recurrence after mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2002;28:126–134
  24. Wibe A, Rendedal PR, Svensson E, et al. Prognostic significance of the circumferential resection margin following total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2002;89:327–334
  25. Balch GC, De Meo A, Guillem JG. Modern management of rectal cancer: a 2006 update. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:3186–3195
  26. Phang PT. Total mesorectal excision: technical aspects. Can J Surg. 2004;47:130–137
  27. Maslekar S, Sharma A, Macdonald A, et al. Mesorectal grades predict recurrences after curative resection for rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2007;50:168–175
  28. Nagtegaal ID, van de Velde CJ, van der Worp E, et al. Macroscopic evaluation of rectal cancer resection specimen: clinical significance of the pathologist in quality control. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:1729–1734
  29. Biggers OR, Beart RW, Ilstrup DM. Local excision of rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29:374–377
  30. Marr R, Birbeck K, Garvican J, et al. The modern abdominoperineal excision: the next challenge after total mesorectal excision. Ann Surg. 2005;242:74–82
  31. Nagtegaal ID, van de Velde CJ, Marijnen CA, et al. Low rectal cancer: a call for a change of approach in abdominoperineal resection. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:9257–9264
  32. Wibe A, Syse A, Andersen E, et al. Oncological outcomes after total mesorectal excision for cure for cancer of the lower rectum: anterior versus abdominoperineal resection. Dis Colon Rectum. 2004;47:48–58
  33. Mori T, Takahashi K, Yasuno M. Radical resection with autonomic nerve preservation and lymph node dissection techniques in lower rectal cancer surgery and its results: the impact of lateral lymph node dissection. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 1998;383:409–415
  34. Habr-Gama A, Perez RO, Nadalin W, et al. Operative versus nonoperative treatment for stage 0 distal rectal cancer following chemoradiation therapy: long-term results. Ann Surg. 2004;240:711–717discussion 717-718
  35. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer (Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial). N Engl J Med. 1997;336:980–987
  36. Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:638–646
  37. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (Rectal Cancer. V. 2.2008). 2008;
  38. Bosset JF, Collette L, Calais G, et al. Chemotherapy with preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1114–1123
  39. Gerard JP, Conroy T, Bonnetain F, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy with or without concurrent fluorouracil and leucovorin in T3-4 rectal cancers: results of FFCD 9203. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:4620–4625
  40. Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1731–1740
  41. Guillem JG, Diaz-Gonzalez JA, Minsky BD, et al. cT3N0 rectal cancer: potential overtreatment with preoperative chemoradiotherapy is warranted. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:368–373
  42. Garcia-Aguilar J, Hernandez de Anda E, Sirivongs P, et al. A pathologic complete response to preoperative chemoradiation is associated with lower local recurrence and improved survival in rectal cancer patients treated by mesorectal excision. Dis Colon Rectum. 2003;46:298–304
  43. Colorectal Cancer Collaborative Group. Adjuvant radiotherapy for rectal cancer: a systematic overview of 8,507 patients from 22 randomised trials. Lancet. 2001;358:1291–1304
  44. Brown G, Richards CJ, Newcombe RG, et al. Rectal carcinoma: thin-section MR imaging for staging in 28 patients. Radiology. 1999;211:215–222
  45. Beets-Tan RG, Beets GL, Vliegen RF, et al. Accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging in prediction of tumour-free resection margin in rectal cancer surgery. Lancet. 2001;357:497–504
  46. Blomqvist L, Holm T, Rubio C, et al. Rectal tumours—MR imaging with endorectal and/or phased-array coils, and histopathological staging on giant sections (A comparative study). Acta Radiol. 1997;38:437–444
  47. Gagliardi G, Bayar S, Smith R, et al. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer using magnetic resonance imaging with external phase-arrayed coils. Arch Surg. 2002;137:447–451
  48. Poon FW, McDonald A, Anderson JH, et al. Accuracy of thin section magnetic resonance using phased-array pelvic coil in predicting the T-staging of rectal cancer. Eur J Radiol. 2005;53:256–262
  49. Bipat S, Glas AS, Slors FJ, et al. Rectal cancer: local staging and assessment of lymph node involvement with endoluminal US, CT, and MR imaging—a meta-analysis. Radiology. 2004;232:773–783
  50. Brown G, Radcliffe AG, Newcombe RG, et al. Preoperative assessment of prognostic factors in rectal cancer using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Surg. 2003;90:355–364
  51. Extramural depth of tumor invasion at thin-section MR in patients with rectal cancer: results of the MERCURY study. Radiology. 2007;243:132–139
  52. Kim NK, Kim MJ, Park JK, et al. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer with MRI: accuracy and clinical usefulness. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:732–737
  53. Schnall MD, Furth EE, Rosato EF, et al. Rectal tumor stage: correlation of endorectal MR imaging and pathologic findings. Radiology. 1994;190:709–714
  54. Vliegen RF, Beets GL, von Meyenfeldt MF, et al. Rectal cancer: MR imaging in local staging—is gadolinium-based contrast material helpful?. Radiology. 2005;234:179–188
  55. Cawthorn SJ, Parums DV, Gibbs NM, et al. Extent of mesorectal spread and involvement of lateral resection margin as prognostic factors after surgery for rectal cancer. Lancet. 1990;335:1055–1059
  56. Willett CG, Badizadegan K, Ancukiewicz M, et al. Prognostic factors in stage T3N0 rectal cancer: do all patients require postoperative pelvic irradiation and chemotherapy?. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42:167–173
  57. Gunderson LL, Sargent DJ, Tepper JE, et al. Impact of T and N stage and treatment on survival and relapse in adjuvant rectal cancer: a pooled analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1785–1796
  58. Merkel S, Mansmann U, Papadopoulos T, et al. The prognostic inhomogeneity of colorectal carcinomas Stage III: a proposal for subdivision of Stage III. Cancer. 2001;92:2754–1759
  59. Beets-Tan RG, Beets GL, Borstlap AC, et al. Preoperative assessment of local tumor extent in advanced rectal cancer: CT or high-resolution MRI?. Abdom Imaging. 2000;25:533–541
  60. Blomqvist L, Holm T, Nyren S, et al. MR imaging and computed tomography in patients with rectal tumours clinically judged as locally advanced. Clin Radiol. 2002;57:211–218
  61. Wittekind CGF, Henson DE. TNM Supplement: A Commentary on Uniform Use. (ed 3). New York, NY: Wiley-Liss; 2003;
  62. Shepherd NA, Baxter KJ, Love SB. The prognostic importance of peritoneal involvement in colonic cancer: a prospective evaluation. Gastroenterology. 1997;112:1096–1102
  63. Pilipshen SJ, Heilweil M, Quan SH, et al. Patterns of pelvic recurrence following definitive resections of rectal cancer. Cancer. 1984;53:1354–1362
  64. Phang PT, MacFarlane JK, Taylor RH, et al. Effects of positive resection margin and tumor distance from anus on rectal cancer treatment outcomes. Am J Surg. 2002;183:504–508
  65. Maier AG, Kreuzer SH, Herbst F, et al. Transrectal sonography of anal sphincter infiltration in lower rectal carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;175:735–739
  66. den Dulk M, Marijnen CA, Putter H, et al. Risk factors for adverse outcome in patients with rectal cancer treated with an abdominoperineal resection in the total mesorectal excision trial. Ann Surg. 2007;246:83–90
  67. Gavioli M, Losi L, Luppi G, et al. Preoperative therapy for lower rectal cancer and modifications in distance from anal sphincter. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69:370–375
  68. Kim DW, Lim SB, Kim DY, et al. Pre-operative chemo-radiotherapy improves the sphincter preservation rate in patients with rectal cancer located within 3 cm of the anal verge. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2006;32:162–167
  69. Zhou ZG, Wang Z, Yu YY, et al. Laparoscopic total mesorectal excision of low rectal cancer with preservation of anal sphincter: a report of 82 cases. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9:1477–1481
  70. Nagtegaal ID, Quirke P. What is the role for the circumferential margin in the modern treatment of rectal cancer?. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:303–312
  71. Nagtegaal ID, Marijnen CA, Kranenbarg EK, et al. Circumferential margin involvement is still an important predictor of local recurrence in rectal carcinoma: not one millimeter but two millimeters is the limit. Am J Surg Pathol. 2002;26:350–357
  72. Caricato M, Borzomati D, Ausania F, et al. Prognostic factors after surgery for locally recurrent rectal cancer: an overview. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2006;32:126–132
  73. Gosens MJ, Klaassen RA, Tan-Go I, et al. Circumferential margin involvement is the crucial prognostic factor after multimodality treatment in patients with locally advanced rectal carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13:6617–6623
  74. Nagtegaal ID, Gosens MJ, Marijnen CA, et al. Combinations of tumor and treatment parameters are more discriminative for prognosis than the present TNM system in rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:1647–1650
  75. Gosens MJ, van Krieken JH, Marijnen CA, et al. Improvement of staging by combining tumor and treatment parameters: the value for prognostication in rectal cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5:997–1003
  76. Wolberink SV, Beets-Tan RG, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative assessment of the circumferential margin in rectal cancer is more informative in treatment planning than the T stage. Tech Coloproctol. 2006;10:171–176
  77. Lahaye MJ, Engelen SM, Nelemans PJ, et al. Imaging for predicting the risk factors—the circumferential resection margin and nodal disease—of local recurrence in rectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2005;26:259–268
  78. Bissett IP, Fernando CC, Hough DM, et al. Identification of the fascia propria by magnetic resonance imaging and its relevance to preoperative assessment of rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2001;44:259–265
  79. Purkayastha S, Tekkis PP, Athanasiou T, et al. Diagnostic precision of magnetic resonance imaging for preoperative prediction of the circumferential margin involvement in patients with rectal cancer. Colorectal Dis. 2007;9:402–411
  80. Videhult P, Smedh K, Lundin P, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging for preoperative staging of rectal cancer in clinical practice: high accuracy in predicting circumferential margin with clinical benefit. Colorectal Dis. 2007;9:412–419
  81. Diagnostic accuracy of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging in predicting curative resection of rectal cancer (prospective observational study). BMJ. 2006;333:779
  82. Wieder HA, Rosenberg R, Lordick F, et al. Rectal cancer: MR imaging before neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy for prediction of tumor-free circumferential resection margins and long-term survival. Radiology. 2007;243:744–751
  83. Engelen SM, Beets-Tan RG, Lahaye MJ, et al. Location of involved mesorectal and extramesorectal lymph nodes in patients with primary rectal cancer: preoperative assessment with MR imaging. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2008;34:776–781
  84. Koh DM, Brown G, Temple L, et al. Distribution of mesorectal lymph nodes in rectal cancer: in vivo MR imaging compared with histopathological examination (Initial observations). Eur Radiol. 2005;15:1650–1657
  85. Hocht S, Mann B, Germer CT, et al. Pelvic sidewall involvement in recurrent rectal cancer. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2004;19:108–113
  86. Hojo K, Koyama Y, Moriya Y. Lymphatic spread and its prognostic value in patients with rectal cancer. Am J Surg. 1982;144:350–354
  87. Morikawa E, Yasutomi M, Shindou K, et al. Distribution of metastatic lymph nodes in colorectal cancer by the modified clearing method. Dis Colon Rectum. 1994;37:219–223
  88. Takahashi T, Ueno M, Azekura K, et al. Lateral node dissection and total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43:S59–S68
  89. Ueno H, Mochizuki H, Hashiguchi Y, et al. Potential prognostic benefit of lateral pelvic node dissection for rectal cancer located below the peritoneal reflection. Ann Surg. 2007;245:80–87
  90. Sugihara K, Kobayashi H, Kato T, et al. Indication and benefit of pelvic sidewall dissection for rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2006;49:1663–1672
  91. Hida J, Yasutomi M, Fujimoto K, et al. Does lateral lymph node dissection improve survival in rectal carcinoma? (Examination of node metastases by the clearing method). J Am Coll Surg. 1997;184:475–480
  92. Brown G, Richards CJ, Bourne MW, et al. Morphologic predictors of lymph node status in rectal cancer with use of high-spatial-resolution MR imaging with histopathologic comparison. Radiology. 2003;227:371–377
  93. Arii K, Takifuji K, Yokoyama S, et al. Preoperative evaluation of pelvic lateral lymph node of patients with lower rectal cancer: comparison study of MR imaging and CT in 53 patients. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2006;391:449–454
  94. Kim JH, Beets GL, Kim MJ, et al. High-resolution MR imaging for nodal staging in rectal cancer: are there any criteria in addition to the size?. Eur J Radiol. 2004;52:78–83
  95. Kim YH, Kim DY, Kim TH, et al. Usefulness of magnetic resonance volumetric evaluation in predicting response to preoperative concurrent chemoradiotherapy in patients with resectable rectal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;62:761–768
  96. Koh DM, Chau I, Tait D, et al. Evaluating mesorectal lymph nodes in rectal cancer before and after neoadjuvant chemoradiation using thin-section T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008;71:456–461
  97. Allen SD, Padhani AR, Dzik-Jurasz AS, et al. Rectal carcinoma: MRI with histologic correlation before and after chemoradiation therapy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007;188:442–451
  98. Hoffmann KT, Rau B, Wust P, et al. Restaging of locally advanced carcinoma of the rectum with MR imaging after preoperative radio-chemotherapy plus regional hyperthermia. Strahlenther Onkol. 2002;178:386–392
  99. Kuo LJ, Chern MC, Tsou MH, et al. Interpretation of magnetic resonance imaging for locally advanced rectal carcinoma after preoperative chemoradiation therapy. Dis Colon Rectum. 2005;48:23–28
  100. Chen CC, Lee RC, Lin JK, et al. How accurate is magnetic resonance imaging in restaging rectal cancer in patients receiving preoperative combined chemoradiotherapy?. Dis Colon Rectum. 2005;48:722–728
  101. Vliegen RF, Beets GL, Lammering G, et al. Mesorectal fascia invasion after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy for locally advanced rectal cancer: accuracy of MR imaging for prediction. Radiology. 2008;246:454–462
  102. Maretto I, Pomerri F, Pucciarelli S, et al. The potential of restaging in the prediction of pathologic response after preoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14:455–461
  103. Schaefer JF, Schlemmer HP. Total-body MR-imaging in oncology. Eur Radiol. 2006;16:2000–2015
  104. Schaefer O, Langer M. Detection of recurrent rectal cancer with CT (MRI and PET/CT). Eur Radiol. 2007;17:2044–2054
  105. Markus J, Morrissey B, deGara C, et al. MRI of recurrent rectosigmoid carcinoma. Abdom Imaging. 1997;22:338–342
  106. Torricelli P, Pecchi A, Luppi G, et al. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI with dynamic evaluation in diagnosing the local recurrence of rectal cancer. Abdom Imaging. 2003;28:19–27
  107. Dicle O, Obuz F, Cakmakci H. Differentiation of recurrent rectal cancer and scarring with dynamic MR imaging. Br J Radiol. 1999;72:1155–1159
  108. Blomqvist L, Ohlsen H, Hindmarsh T, et al. Local recurrence of rectal cancer: MR imaging before and after oral superparamagnetic particles vs contrast-enhanced computed tomography. Eur Radiol. 2000;10:1383–1389
  109. Krestin GP, Steinbrich W, Friedmann G. Recurrent rectal cancer: diagnosis with MR imaging versus CT. Radiology. 1988;168:307–311
  110. Titu LV, Nicholson AA, Hartley JE, et al. Routine follow-up by magnetic resonance imaging does not improve detection of resectable local recurrences from colorectal cancer. Ann Surg. 2006;243:348–352
  111. Robinson P, Carrington BM, Swindell R, et al. Recurrent or residual pelvic bowel cancer: accuracy of MRI local extent before salvage surgery. Clin Radiol. 2002;57:514–522
  112. Muller-Schimpfle M, Brix G, Layer G, et al. Recurrent rectal cancer: diagnosis with dynamic MR imaging. Radiology. 1993;189:881–889
  113. Blomqvist L, Fransson P, Hindmarsh T. The pelvis after surgery and radio-chemotherapy for rectal cancer studied with Gd-DTPA-enhanced fast dynamic MR imaging. Eur Radiol. 1998;8:781–787
  114. Kim MJ, Lim JS, Oh YT, et al. Preoperative MRI of rectal cancer with and without rectal water filling: an intraindividual comparison. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182:1469–1476
  115. Slater A, Halligan S, Taylor SA, et al. Distance between the rectal wall and mesorectal fascia measured by MRI: effect of rectal distension and implications for preoperative prediction of a tumour-free circumferential resection margin. Clin Radiol. 2006;61:65–70
  116. Aitken C, Breen E, Mamon HJ. Sphincter preservation therapy for rectal cancer. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol. 2003;1:735–740
  117. Zagoria RJ, Schlarb CA, Ott DJ, et al. Assessment of rectal tumor infiltration utilizing endorectal MR imaging and comparison with endoscopic rectal sonography. J Surg Oncol. 1997;64:312–317
  118. Gualdi GF, Casciani E, Guadalaxara A, et al. Local staging of rectal cancer with transrectal ultrasound and endorectal magnetic resonance imaging: comparison with histologic findings. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43:338–345
  119. Maldjian C, Smith R, Kilger A, et al. Endorectal surface coil MR imaging as a staging technique for rectal carcinoma: a comparison study to rectal endosonography. Abdom Imaging. 2000;25:75–80
  120. LeBlanc JK. Imaging and management of rectal cancer. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;4:665–676
  121. Matsuoka H, Nakamura A, Masaki T, et al. Comparison between endorectal coil and pelvic phased-array coil magnetic resonance imaging in patients with anorectal tumor. Am J Surg. 2003;185:328–332
  122. Tatli S, Mortele KJ, Breen EL, et al. Local staging of rectal cancer using combined pelvic phased-array and endorectal coil MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006;23:534–540
  123. Brown G, Kirkham A, Williams GT, et al. High-resolution MRI of the anatomy important in total mesorectal excision of the rectum. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182:431–439
  124. Robbins SE, Virjee J. Applied radiologic anatomy. In:  Butler P,  Mitchell AWM,  Ellis H editor. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 1999;p. 219–222
  125. Beets-Tan RG, Beets GL, van der Hoop AG, et al. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging of the anorectal region without an endocoil. Abdom Imaging. 1999;24:576–581discussion 582-584
  126. Talbot IC, Ritchie S, Leighton MH, et al. The clinical significance of invasion of veins by rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 1980;67:439–442
  127. Bokey EL, Ojerskog B, Chapuis PH, et al. Local recurrence after curative excision of the rectum for cancer without adjuvant therapy: role of total anatomical dissection. Br J Surg. 1999;86:1164–1170
  128. Smith NJ, Barbachano Y, Norman AR, et al. Prognostic significance of magnetic resonance imaging-detected extramural vascular invasion in rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2008;95:229–236
  129. Consorti F, Lorenzotti A, Midiri G, et al. Prognostic significance of mucinous carcinoma of colon and rectum: a prospective case-control study. J Surg Oncol. 2000;73:70–74
  130. Kanemitsu Y, Kato T, Hirai T, et al. Survival after curative resection for mucinous adenocarcinoma of the colorectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 2003;46:160–167
  131. Ho YH. Techniques for restoring bowel continuity and function after rectal cancer surgery. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:6252–6260
  132. Hoeffel C, Arrive L, Mourra N, et al. Anatomic and pathologic findings at external phased-array pelvic MR imaging after surgery for anorectal disease. Radiographics. 2006;26:1391–1407
  133. Ito K, Kato T, Tadokoro M, et al. Recurrent rectal cancer and scar: differentiation with PET and MR imaging. Radiology. 1992;182:549–552
  134. Messiou C, Chalmers A, Boyle K, et al. Surgery for recurrent rectal carcinoma: the role of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging. Clin Radiol. 2006;61:250–258
  135. Rao SX, Zeng MS, Chen CZ, et al. The value of diffusion-weighted imaging in combination with T2-weighted imaging for rectal cancer detection. Eur J Radiol. 2008;65:299–303
  136. Dzik-Jurasz A, Domenig C, George M, et al. Diffusion MRI for prediction of response of rectal cancer to chemoradiation. Lancet. 2002;360:307–308
  137. Kim JK, Kim KA, Park BW, et al. Feasibility of diffusion-weighted imaging in the differentiation of metastatic from nonmetastatic lymph nodes: early experience. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2008;28:714–719
  138. Lin G, Ho KC, Wang JJ, et al. Detection of lymph node metastasis in cervical and uterine cancers by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging at 3T. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2008;28:128–135
  139. Hein PA, Kremser C, Judmaier W, et al. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for monitoring diffusion changes in rectal carcinoma during combined, preoperative chemoradiation: preliminary results of a prospective study. Eur J Radiol. 2003;45:214–222
  140. Koh DM, Brown G, Temple L, et al. Rectal cancer: mesorectal lymph nodes at MR imaging with USPIO versus histopathologic findings—initial observations. Radiology. 2004;231:91–99
  141. Lahaye MJ, Engelen SM, Kessels AG, et al. USPIO-enhanced MR imaging for nodal staging in patients with primary rectal cancer: predictive criteria. Radiology. 2008;246:804–811

PII: S0887-2171(08)00091-7

doi: 10.1053/j.sult.2008.10.008

Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI
Volume 29, Issue 6 , Pages 433-453 , December 2008